In this entry, we’ll look at the interfaces that are used to control the behavior of the “termios” box sitting between the master and slave pty. The behaviors I described last time are fine if you have a completely dumb program talking to the terminal, but if the program over on the right is using curses (like emacs or vim), or even just readline (like bash), it will want to disable or customize some of the behaviors.

The primary programmatic interface to termios is the struct termios and two functions:

   int tcgetattr(int fd, struct termios *termios_p);
   int tcsetattr(int fd, int optional_actions,
                 const struct termios *termios_p);

which retrieve and set the struct termios associated with a given terminal device. They are all documented in termios(3) (If you’re unfamiliar with the convention, that means document termios in section 3 of the unix man pages — man 3 termios on a command-line will get it for you).

So what’s inside struct termios? POSIX specifies that this structure contains at least the following fields:

       tcflag_t c_iflag;      /* input modes */
       tcflag_t c_oflag;      /* output modes */
       tcflag_t c_cflag;      /* control modes */
       tcflag_t c_lflag;      /* local modes */
       cc_t     c_cc[NCCS];   /* control chars */

Each “flag” field contains a number of flags (implemented as a bitmask) that can be individually enabled or disabled. c_iflag and c_oflag contain flags that affect the processing of input and output, respectively. c_cflag we will mostly ignore, as it contains settings that relate to the control of modems and serial lines that are mostly irrelevant these days. c_lflag is perhaps the most interesting of the flag values. It contains flags that control the broad-scale behavior of the tty. I’ll look at just a few of the interesting bits in each:

local modes

• ICANON – Perhaps the most important bit in c_lflag is the ICANON bit. Enabling it enables “canonical” mode — also known as “line editing” mode. When ICANON is set, the terminal buffers a line at a time, and enables line editing. Without ICANON, input is made available to programs immediately (this is also known as “cbreak” mode).

• ECHO in c_lflag controls whether input is immediately re-echoed as output. It is independent of ICANON, although they are often turned on and off together. When passwd prompts for your password, your terminal is in canonical mode, but ECHO is disabled.

• ISIG in c_lflag controls whether ^C and ^Z (and friends) generate signals or not. When unset, they are passed directly through as characters, without generating signals to the application.

input and output modes

There are also a few flags in c_iflag and c_oflag worth mentioning.

• IXON in c_iflag enables the “flow control” mediated by ^S and ^Q (by default). With IXON, once ^S has been received by the master pty, the slave will not accept any output (writes to it will hang) until ^Q is received by the master pty.

• IUTF8 in c_iflag is an interesting hack. In canonical mode, backspace needs to delete the previous character in the input buffer. In non-ASCII encodings, a single character may be several bytes long, but the terminal still only sees a byte stream, and has no explicit information about the encoding or character boundaries on either end. IUTF8 tells termios that the input stream is utf-8 encoded, which permits the correct handling of backspace. If IUTF8 is unset, and you enter a multibyte character and then press backspace, only the final byte will be deleted, leaving you with a corrupt utf-8 stream.

• OLCUC in c_oflag “Map[s] lowercase characters to uppercase on output.” Just in CASE YOU NEED YOUR TERMINAL TO LOOK MORE LIKE SHOUTING.

There are many more flags, controlling such details as newline translation and how character erase works. The full list is documented in termios(3).

c_cc

Next up is c_cc. This field sets the various control characters used to interact with the terminal. Characters like ^C and ^Z and delete that have special meanings to termios are not hard coded anywhere, but rather defined via the c_cc array.

c_cc is indexed by various constants for the various control characters, and the value at any index is the character that should have that effect. Some of the notable ones are:

• VINTR — Generate a SIGINT (^C by default).

• VSUSP — Generate a SIGTSTP (stop the program) (^Z by default).

• VERASE — Erase the previous character. This tends to be one of ^H and ^? (ASCII 0x7f) by default — if you’ve ever pressed “backspace” and been greeted by a ^H, your terminal and your struct termios disagree on the value of VERASE.

• VEOF — End of file. Sends the current line to the program without waiting for end-of-line, or, as the first character on the line, causes the next read call by the slave to return return end-of-file. (^D by default)

• VSTOP and VSTART — ^S and ^Q by default, stop and start output.

Setting any of these to NULL (0) disables that special control character. Many of the c_cc elements are only relevant when certain modes are active — VINTR and VSUSP, for instance, only matter if ISIG is enabled in c_lflag, and VSTOP and VSTART are ignored unless IXON is set.

(A brief note on the representation of control characters — The characters ^A through ^Z, pronounced “Ctrl-FOO”, are represented by the bytes with values 1 through 26. So when I say that c_cc[VINTR] is equal to ^C by default, that’s actually just the number 3 — your terminal took the keypresses and just translated them into the byte 3 on the wire.)

stty

While termios(3) is the standard programmatic interface to control termios, a much more convenient interface for experimentation is the stty program, which is just a thin wrapper around tcgetattr and tcsetattr designed to be usable from shell scripts or directly from the shell.

stty gets or sets options on a terminal device. By default, it operates on the one connected to its standard out, but you can pass it an arbitrary device using the -F option.

Without aguments, stty prints in what way its terminal’s settings differ from an internal set of “sane” defaults. stty -a causes it to print the value of every flag in the struct termios in a human-readable format.

You can toggle flags using stty flag to enable a flag, and stty -flag to disable it. So for instance, stty -isig will disable signal generation — run a program after doing this, and you’ll find yourself unable to ^C it. In general it uses the same names as the C constants, except in lowercase, but check the man page if in doubt.

stty can also change the value of the control characters in c_cc, using stty symbolic-name character. If you wanted ^G to be the interrupt character, instead of ^C, a simple stty intr ^G would suffice. You can spell 0 as undef to disable a given control character. So, if you hate flow control and want to totally disable it, you could try stty -ixon stop undef — disable IXON, and then also disable the VSTOP character for good measure. (You might still be foiled by screen or some other layer doing its own flow control, unfortunately).

stty‘s -F option can be great for peeking at what some other program is doing to its terminal. If you run tty in a shell, it will print the path to that shell’s terminal device (usually of the form /dev/pts/N, at least under Linux). Now, from a different shell, you can run stty -a -F /dev/pts/N to see how the first shell’s terminal is configured. You can then run programs in the first shell, and repeat the stty incant in shell two to see what settings are getting set. For example, if I run stty -F /dev/pts/10 right now (while I have a bash talking to a gnome-terminal via that pty), I see:

$ stty -F /dev/pts/10
speed 38400 baud; line = 0;
eol = M-^?; eol2 = M-^?; swtch = M-^?; lnext = <undef>; min = 1; time = 0;
-icrnl iutf8
-icanon -echo

So we can see that bash/readline has disabled CR→LF translation on input (icrnl), disabled canonical mode and echo, but turned on UTF-8 mode (because bash detected a utf-8 locale). Note that if I run stty directly in that shell, I see something slightly different:

$ stty
speed 38400 baud; line = 0;
eol = M-^?; eol2 = M-^?; swtch = M-^?;
iutf8

This is because bash maintains its own set of termios settings (for readline), and saves and restores settings around running programs, so that settings in place while running a program are different from those in place while you’re typing at the bash prompt.

In the next post, we’ll look at signal generation from ISIG and how it interacts with job control in your shell.

Addendum: ioctl(2)

This last section is a brief aside, which has very little to do with termios specifically, so you should feel free to skip it. But read on if you’re curious about some of the low-level details of how the APIs work.

If you’re familiar with man page conventions, you may have noticed that the termios functions are in man page section 3, which means that they’re provided by system libraries, and are not system calls. But at the same time, I told you last time that termios is implemented inside the kernel — so how are the libraries talking to the kernel, if not through syscalls?

The answer is a single odd little catch-all system call, known as ioctl. Historically, one of the “big ideas” of UNIX was that “everything is a file” — you could communicate with devices just like you could files, by opening files in /dev/. But a file on UNIX is also just a stream of bytes, without any OS-imposed structure. And for a device, you may often need to send out-of-band control data — e.g. to set the baud and parity bit settings on a serial port. And adding new system calls for every new device type would be untenable for a number of reasons.

So the answer was one new new system call, ioctl (pronounced as any of “I-O-cuddle”, “I-octal” or “I-O-C-T-L”). ioctl is prototyped as:

int ioctl(int fd, int request, ...);

It takes a file descriptor, a numeric “request” code, and an unspecified number of other arguments. ioctl looks up whatever device (or file system, network protcol, or whatever) is backing that file descriptor, and hands it the “request” and the arguments to do with as they will.

So any device that needs extra control channels can define some ioctl numbers and parameters and document them somewhere, and they become the interface to control that device. So, for instance (at least on Linux), an ioctl on a tty device with a “request” of TCGETS (defined in termios.h) takes a parameter that is a pointer to a struct termios, and copies the in-kernel settings for that tty to the provided struct. So somewhere in libc, tcgetattr(fd, p) is just defined to do an ioctl(fd, TCGETS, p). Similar ioctls are defined for tcsetattr and all the functions in termios(3). On Linux, at least, the morbidly curious can find out all the gory details in tty_ioctl(4).